On Higher Education
and how it was influenced by guilds, apprenticeships and medieval universities.
A personal story
I love learning. Going to college and university was like a dream come true for me. However, it was a rocky and bumpy path because I spent a year or two after high school deciding what subjects to study at these institutions. This included taking a gap year and travelling across India on a student budget (more on that later). But this essay is about the story of higher education and its origins.
My life changed and got some direction and purpose when I finally enrolled and got my college ID for an undergraduate course that I really wanted to pursue. I was like a kid in a chocolate factory. I could read books and conduct research about things I found interesting. I had to write papers and give exams about things that got me excited as a student. This is going to be extraordinary. This is such a fun human experience to have (I am a bit of a nerd). I knew I would spend some time in these educational institutions.
I was right…
Between 2014 to 2021, I spent 7 years gathering skills, knowledge and experiences at higher education institutions. You can find a detailed breakdown of my journey from that time in this post from my blog. Here is a much shorter breakdown of the courses I pursued in that window:
2014 to 2017 - Bachelor of Arts in English Literature with a minor in Psychology and Political Science from the Ismail Yusuf College of Arts, Science and Commerce that was under the Mumbai University System
2017 to 2019 - Master of Arts in Education Management from Indira Gandhi National Open University
2019 to 2021 - Bachelor of Education in Intermediate and Senior Teaching for the Subjects of English Language Arts and Social Sciences from Western University
I spend so much time and money on these courses and programs from these institutions. My family supported me throughout this time. I know this is not the reality for many people. I am grateful for the opportunity and privilege to study these subjects and get the financial and emotional support to do the same from my loved ones. On a rainy day in 2025, I was organizing old files and folders and came across these paper certificates that I got at the end of each higher education program I completed during that time.
I had kept them in a file in a top drawer in my house. They caught a lot of dust. While cleaning these sheets of paper, I realized that I had some unanswered questions.
What was the story behind these higher education institutions? When did the idea of higher education first emerge? What is the history of colleges or universities as we know them today? Why did humans invent these institutions in the first place? What is the social and economic purpose of spending so much time and money in these programs? Why do most adults continue to spend their life savings to send their children to these institutions? Why do young adults invest so much time and effort in getting certifications from these institutions?
I needed to get to the root of this and thus began an investigation…
Schools of Thought: Platonic, Sophist and Pythagorean
“The university was a distinctly medieval institution.” - Hastings Rashdall (1895)
Even with its Greek Precursors (Platonic, Sophist and Pythagorean influences) there is evidence that idea of the university in the western world (in terms of its organizational structure) originated in the medieval age.
Ray J. Amirault and Robert K. Branson wrote about the two early philosophical influences that led to the idea of the university in the Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance (2006)1, in the chapter titled Educators and Expertise: A Brief History of Theories and Models as such:
We witness in the ancient context two unfolding views toward expertise, each vested in a philosophical view of the nature and purpose of education. If one subscribed to the notion that education held innate worth and that its goal was the development of the "inner man" (as did Plato and Socrates), then "expertise" could be seen as the attainment of a general set of inner traits that made one wise, virtuous, and in harmony with truth. If one subscribed to the value of applied skills development (as did the Sophists), then "expertise" could be viewed as the attainment of a set of comprehensive practical abilities.
(Ericsson, Charness, Feltovich, Hoffman. 2006. Kindle Location 2790).
From this passage we understand that there was a perspective that looked at the larger objective of higher education as the development of the inner human (Socrates, Plato) and there was a parallel perspective that looked at the larger objective of higher education with regards to the development of applied skills (Sophists). The Pythagorean view of higher education saw learning as a path to the purification and harmony of the soul, rooted in the belief that the universe is governed by mathematical order. Education, in this view, is not merely intellectual but moral and spiritual, helping individuals align with cosmic truth through disciplines like mathematics, music, and astronomy.
The Sophist, Platonic and Pythagorean schools of thought came together and heavily influenced the structure of learning experiences in the first medieval universities in the world. But these medieval universities also closely observed and mimicked the structure of learning in worker’s guilds or craftsman’s guilds of the medieval ages.
The medieval connection
The first medieval universities were organized as scholars guilds (a group of academics that liked hanging out together and having arguments). Examples of the same include the University of Bologna founded in 1088, that had developed a reputation for law; the University of Paris founded in 1150, that had developed a reputation for theology and the University of Cambridge founded in 1209, that had developed a reputation for philosophy.
A medieval university was a formal institution of higher learning that emerged in Europe between the 11th and 15th centuries, typically associated with the Church. It offered structured education in subjects like theology, law, medicine, and the liberal arts (grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy), and granted recognized degrees. These universities were often self-governing communities of scholars and students, with Latin as the primary language of instruction.
The learning experiences of students in these medieval universities were very similar to the learning experiences of apprentices in the guild systems of the era.
For instance in medieval times, there was a guild of bakers, a guild of mechanics, a guild of metalworkers, and so on. These were expert practitioners of these trades who were responsible for performing that duty for their community. They were also responsible for training the next generation of workers or craftspeople. The training method used in these guilds was adopted by medieval universities to train students in more academic subjects.
To become part of the guild you had to go through a special kind of training process which they refer to as an apprenticeship
But…
What is an apprenticeship? What is a guild?
And…
How is this connected to higher education?
Great questions. But first here are some not so personal stories
The artist, Leonardo Da Vinci was an apprentice and journeyman artist for sixteen years before he got his first job as a painter and engineer at the age of 32.
The scientist, Michael Faraday was an apprentice to a bookseller for seven years during which he first developed his interest for scientific literature by reading several books available at the store.
The statesman, Benjamin Franklin was an apprentice at his brother's printing trade for five years. It was here that he first started writing for an independent magazine published by his brother. He also read voraciously during the period.
The fashion designer, Coco Chanel was born and brought up at a children’s home located in Aubazine, France. She stayed there for six years and learned the art of sewing from her caretakers at the home.
These are some people we admire today who pursued an apprenticeship through a version of a guild to become competent practitioners of their craft.
What is an Apprenticeship?
Apprenticeship is a structured system of training where a person (called an apprentice) learns a specific trade, skill, or profession by working under the guidance of an experienced expert (called a mentor or master) while also studying related theory. It combines hands-on practical experience with classroom or formal instruction, usually over a set period of time, and often leads to a recognized qualification or certification.
The editors of the Encyclopedia Britannica2 described an apprenticeship as follows
Training in an art, trade, or craft under a legal agreement that defines the duration and conditions of the relationship between master and apprentice’.
The Wikipedia entry describing an apprenticeship3 went as follows,
A system of training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on the job training and often some accompanying study (classroom work and reading)'
Michael Farr and Laurence Shatkin, defined an apprenticeship in their publication titled 200 Best Jobs through Apprenticeships (2009)4 as follows,
Apprenticeship is a system of job training in which trainees become highly skilled workers through a combination of worksite learning and classroom learning. It is sometimes called "the other four year degree" because it often takes four years and it results in a nationally recognized credential that can open the door to income and job security that can be as good as or better than what college graduates enjoy. (Farr and Shatkin, 2009, pg. 1).
Adam Smith in the Wealth of Nations (1776)5 wrote about the normal duration of an apprenticeship in the chapter titled, ‘Inequalities occasioned by the Policy of Europe’ as such:
Seven years seem anciently to have been, all over Europe, the usual term established for the duration of apprenticeships in the greater part of incorporated trades. All such incorporations were anciently called universities, which indeed is the proper Latin name for an incorporation whatever. The university of smiths, the university of tailors, etc., are expressions which we commonly meet with in the old charters of ancient towns...As to have wrought seven years under a master properly qualified as necessary in order to entitle any person to become a master, and to have himself apprenticed in a common trade; so to have studied seven years under a master properly qualified was necessary to entitle him to become a master, teacher or doctor (words anciently synonymous in the liberal arts), and to have scholars or apprentices (words likewise originally synonymous) to study under him.(Smith, 1776, pg. 278)
The idea of an apprentice and the apprenticeship system originated in the Middle Ages in the Guild System of that era.
What is a Guild?
In a medieval context, a guild can be defined as an association of artisans or merchants who control the practice of their craft or trade in their particular town.
They were organized like an association of professionals (think lawyer groups, teacher unions or doctor chapters). There were several types of guilds. Examples included the guild of carpenters, the guild of blacksmiths or the guild of tailors.
These guilds had specific advantages that were bestowed to them by their community members and leaders:
These guilds were often controlled by master craftsmen who were skilled practitioners of the particular profession.
The members of the guild often had sole permission to practice their profession and most often had a monopoly on the trade in their particular town.
They determined how their products would be produced, the standard price, and the process of production or service delivery, the condition of work among other factors that had to be strictly followed by members of the guild.
The master craftsmen were in control of the guild. They supervised the training of apprentices and journeymen in for their particular guild that specialized in a particular profession.
Who is a Master Craftsman?
The master craftsmen were the leaders, field experts or primary decision makers in a guild. They were competent and respected experts in their particular trade or craft.
To understand this better, let us explore some definitions of a master craftsman who we will look at as a field expert for the rest of this paper. Here are a few definitions of a field expert as put forward by the Swedish psychologist and Expertise Researcher, K Anders Ericsson in the Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance (2006), which went as follows:
Encyclopedias describe an Expert as "one who is very skillful and well informed in some special field" (Websters New World Dictionary, 1968, p.168), or "someone widely recognized as a reliable source of knowledge, technique, or skill whose judgement is accorded authority and status by the public or his or her peers (fellow guild members). Experts have prolonged or intense experience through practice and education in a particular field
(Ericsson, Charness, Feltovich, Hoffman, 2006. Kindle Location 285).
In another chapter of the Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance (2006) under the heading, Tracing the Development of our Knowledge of Expertise and Expert Performance, Ericsson further described how an interesting sort of organizational and hierarchical structure developed during the Middle Ages around the idea of expertise or being a master craftsman for your particular profession. He paraphrased S.A Epstein from his publication titled Wage Labour and guilds in Medieval Europe (1991)6 as follows:
Much later during the Middle Ages, craftsmen formed guilds to protect themselves from competition. Through arrangements with the mayor and/or monarch they obtained a monopoly on providing particular types of handcraft and services with set quality standards...They passed on their special knowledge of how to produce products, such as lace, barrels, and shoes, to their students (apprentices). Apprentices would typically start at around age 14 and commit to serve and study with their master for around 7 years. Once an apprentice had served out their contract, they were given a letter of recommendation and were free to work with other masters for pay, which often involved traveling to other cities and towns - they were therefore referred to as journeymen...When a journeyman had accumulated enough additional skill and saved enough money, he, or occasionally she, would often return to his home town to inherit or purchase a shop with tools and apply to become a master of the guild. In most guilds they required inspection of the journeyman's best work, that is, master pieces, and in some guilds they administered special tests to assess the level of performance.
(Ericsson, Charness, Feltovich, Hoffman, 2006. Kindle Location 342 – 346 – 350).
How students acquired skills in the medieval age?
Here is a breakdown of the journey of a student in the medieval age based on the above information:
A student would spend seven years as an apprentice (work for a carpenter in a small town for seven years).
The apprentice would then spend two to three years as a journeyman (travel to nearby towns and works with carpenters in those areas to learn new skills related to carpentry).
The journeyman would come back to their village, setup a shop and provide their services to residents of that village at a minimum cost (setup a carpenter shop that makes tables and chairs for villagers).
They would also start work towards a masterpiece creation. They would present and collect feedback on this from the master craftsmen of their guild (create a unique design for a table or chair).
When the masterpiece creation of the journeyman was accepted by the master craftsman of the guild then this journeyman would be accepted and anointed as a new master craftsman of the guild (the unique and new design of the table was approved by senior carpenters of the villaged and displayed for all the villagers to see and appreciate)
They could now take on the training of apprentices and were held accountable and responsible for ensuring the quality of products or service from their establishment (the carpenter could now expand their business and charge a higher price as they were certified by the guild of carpenters in their village).
Thus the final objective or goal of a young student in the medieval age was to become a master craftsman after undergoing extensive training as an apprentice and additional advanced training as a journeyman.
In the Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance (2006), K. Anders Ericsson further paraphrased the work of the scholar E. A. Krause from his 1999 publication, Death of the Guilds, States and the Advance of Capitalism, 1930 to the present7, to help us understand how learning was structured in medieval universities:
In a similar manner, the scholars' guild was established in the 12th and 13th century as a "universities magistribus et pupillorum," or "guild of masters and students" (Krause, 1996, p.9). Influenced by the University of Paris, most universities conducted all instruction in Latin, where the students were initially apprenticed as arts students until they successfully completed the preparatory (undergraduate) program and were admitted to the more advanced programs in medicine, law, or theology. To become a master, the advanced students needed to satisfy "a committee of examiners, then publicly defending a thesis, often in the town square and with local grocers and shoemakers asking questions" (Krause, 1996, p.10). The goal of the universities was to accumulate and explain knowledge, and in the process masters organized the existing knowledge. With the new organization of the existing knowledge of a domain, it was no longer necessary for individuals to discover the relevant knowledge and methods by themselves.
(Ericsson, Charness, Feltovich, Hoffman, 2006. Kindle Location 362).
How is this connected to Higher Education?
Even with its Greek Precursors (Platonic, Sophist and Pythagorean influences) there is evidence that idea of the university (in terms of its organizational structure) originated in the medieval age.
The modern university or college has its roots in universities created in the medieval world. The core structure of these medieval universities included elements of the apprentice system, the support of guild frameworks of the era and the guidance of master craftsmen.
In a medieval context students followed a specific learning path. An apprentice would start his training with a journeyman or master craftsman of the guild anywhere between the age of 15 to 19. He would then spend 7 years learning all the tools and tricks of the trade with the more competent master craftsman. After this he would be certified as a journeyman and would then spend 5 years or more practicing their trade as a traveling journeyman or by opening a shop in their town. During this period the journeyman also worked on their masterpiece (think PhD thesis), which they presented to the master craftsman after completion. If accepted the journeyman would then become a master craftsman too and could officially practice his trade with that certification (several benefits for a master practitioner in the town) and he was also allowed to take on and teach his own batch of apprentices.
Here is a list of some of the oldest medieval universities of the western world and their areas of specialization
The University of Bologna (Italy) was founded in 1088 AD and is one of the oldest universities in the western world that developed a reputation for law as a subject.
The University of Oxford (United Kingdom) was founded in 1096 AD and was the oldest universities in the English-speaking world.
The University of Paris (France) was founded in 1150 AD and developed a reputation for theology.
The University of Cambridge (United Kingdom) was founded in 1209 AD and developed a reputation for natural philosophy.
Similarly in a modern context students follow a learning path at higher education institutions or universities that is partly connected to its roots in the medieval times.
They first spend 3 to 4 years learning a set of foundational subjects at the undergraduate level and earn a bachelor’s degree (early apprentice stage). They then opt for more advanced training of 2-3 years in a specialized subject area at the graduate level and earn a master’s degree (late apprentice stage). They then choose a smaller niche in the specialized subject area and aim to conduct original or new research in that niche over a 3-5 year period (journeyman stage) at the post graduate level. They present their research to a panel of established researchers (master craftsmen) and once their research is approved by the panel they then earn a doctoral degree (certification that they can teach or research in this area in the world).
Here is a list of some modern universities of the world and their areas of specialization
Harvard University (United States) was founded in 1636 and is the oldest institution of higher education in the U.S.
Stanford University (United States) was founded in 1885 and is known for its innovation and ties to Silicon Valley.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (United States) was founded in 1861 and is a leader in science, engineering, and technology.
University of Tokyo (Japan) was founded in 1877 and is Japan’s first national university, renowned for its cutting-edge research and strong influence on government and policy-making in Japan.
Tsinghua University (China) was founded in 1911 and is known for its leadership in science, engineering, and technology, and for producing many of China’s top political and business leaders.
National University of Singapore (NUS) (Singapore) was founded in 1905 and is recognized for its global outlook and interdisciplinary research, consistently ranked as Asia’s top university in international rankings.
But…
Why do humans pursue higher education?
A simple answer would be that they pursue higher education to acquire skills, knowledge and experiences.
A more complex answer would be that they pursue higher education to acquire a specific set of skills, knowledge and experiences that give them the opportunity to develop the competence and credibility to practice a profession or start an organization that helps individuals in their physical community or in digital communities around the world.
Most adults continue to spend a large chunk of their life savings to send their children to these institutions because it prepares them for the real world and helps their children choose a career they can earn a living from in the long run. The specialized subject training and transfer of knowledge can not be done by parents at home. You need subject experts to do that job. Students also need to socialize with other students in their late teens and early twenties to develop social skills. Parents cannot replace the need to connect with other young adults in a person’s life. So parents send their children to universities and colleges to pursue a higher education.
Many young adults invest a lot of time and effort in getting certifications from these institutions because it is a signalling mechanism to prove their competence and credibility in a particular trade or profession. It shows employers that they have undergone basic training in the field and deserve a chance to practice it in the real world through the employer’s organization. A certification from a university or college tells an employer that this candidate has the basic skills and practical knowledge in a particular area of studies that may benefit your organization.
Humans pursue higher education because it gives their life meaning in more ways than one. It helps them find entry level jobs, gain respect or status, achieve social mobility and become a responsible tax paying citizen. Here are some questions to reflect on some of the ideas presented in this essay.
What did you study after high school? Why did you pursue those courses or programs of study? How did that basic training help you in your profession or career in the long run?
What undergraduate program did you pursue and why? What post graduate program did you pursue and why? What doctoral program did you pursue and why?
How will the university evolve to meet the changing needs of the current job market? Will some disciplines become more important than others?
I would love to discuss some of these questions in the comments of this post.
Thank you for reading this edition of #EducationCoffee.
Until next time,
Keep Learning
Abhishek Shetty
Additional Resources
Notes and Links
Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P. J., & Hoffman, R. R. (Eds.). (2006). The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance. Cambridge University Press.
Apprenticeship. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved May 27, 2025, from <http://www.britannica.com/topic/apprenticeship>
Apprenticeship. (n.d.). Wikipedia Online. Retrieved May 27, 2025 from <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprenticeship>
Farr, M. and Shatkin, L. (2009). 200 Best Jobs Through Apprenticeships. Second Edition. JIST Works.
Smith, A. (1776). Wealth of Nations: An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of The Wealth of Nations. London: W. Strahan and T. Cadell.
Epstein, S. A. (1991). Wage labor and guilds in medieval Europe. UNC Press Books.
Krause, E. A. (1999). Death of the Guilds: Professions, States, and the Advance of Capitalism, 1930 to the Present. Yale University Press.
Thanks for this research and deep dive into the history of high level education! I really enjoyed this. 💙