How Students Learn?

On how students learn best through the lens of psychological research.

I was always curious about psychological research as an educator. I thought there were so many parallels between these two disciplines of psychology and education. As a new teacher, I always found it challenging to make strong connections between academic research and classroom practice.

For me academic research seemed theoretical and detached from the realities of classroom context.

For me classroom practice was heavily focused on assessment criteria rather than evidence based strategies that helped students learn best. I felt this tension between research and practice.

I wanted to dissipate this tension a little bit. So I decided to dive into the world of psychology and education research but with the lens of a classroom teacher. I wanted to understand what research from the field of psychology says about how students learn. I then started finding principles that I could easily apply in a classroom context. I started looking for a comprehensive paper or resource that helped me answer this question.

The Most Important Paper I Read…

The most important paper I read in Teacher’s College was published by the Coalition for Psychology in Education and Education. This is a diverse group of psychologists from across American Psychological Association who are dedicated to enhancing teaching and learning through the application of psychological science to pre-k to 12 education. This paper was titled, Top 20 Principles from Psychology for Pre K - 12 Teaching and Learning¹. It helped address my concerns about dissipating the tension between research and practice.

The American Psychological Association or APA was founded in 1892 with 31 members and grew quickly after World War II². Today, APA is the largest scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States, with more than 121,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants and students as its members. APA also has 54 divisions in subfields of psychology. There were 10 authors from this organization involved in this publication and you can access this document for free on the internet on the American Psychological Association’s website linked below.

Top 20 Principles from Psychology for Prek - 12 Teaching and Learning.

I was always curious about psychological research as an educator. I thought there were so many parallels between these two disciplines of psychology and education. I always found it challenging to make strong connections between academic research and classroom practice until I came across this document. These 20 principles were further organized into five categories which were,

1. How do students think and learn? (Principle 1 to 8)

2. What motivates students? (Principle 9 to 12)

3. Why are social, context, interpersonal relationships, and emotional well-being important to student learning? (Principle 13 to 15)

4. How can the classroom best be managed? (Principle 16 to 17)

5. How can teachers assess student progress? (Principle 18 to 19)

Why Psychology Matters?

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. It explores how people think, feel, and act, and examines both individual and group behavior through observation, experimentation, and analysis.

In this video Brooke Miller, Ph.D., instructor of psychology, walks through the origins and major schools of psychology for the Course Hero Youtube Channel.

A Short History of Psychology

Psychology has a fascinating personal history³. Here's a breakdown of the important dates in the history of psychology as a discipline, highlighting key milestones and dates:

• Ancient Roots (4th century BCE) - Plato and Aristotle explored topics like memory, learning, and motivation, laying philosophical groundwork.

• 1590 - The term "psychology" is first used by Rudolph Goclenius, a German scholastic philosopher.

• 1879 - Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany — considered the birth of psychology as a science.

• 1890 - William James publishes The Principles of Psychology, foundational to functionalism in American psychology.

• 1892 - American Psychological Association (APA) is founded, with G. Stanley Hall as its first president.

• 1896 - First psychological clinic is opened by Lightner Witmer at the University of Pennsylvania — birth of clinical psychology.

• 1900 - Sigmund Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams, launching psychoanalysis.

• 1913 - John B. Watson publishes "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It," initiating the behaviorist movement.

• 1930s–1950s - Rise of behaviorism (e.g., B.F. Skinner) as dominant school of thought.

• 1950s–1960s - Emergence of humanistic psychology (e.g., Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow) emphasizing self-actualization and personal growth.

• 1967 - Ulric Neisser publishes Cognitive Psychology, marking the rise of the cognitive revolution.

• 1970s–1990s - Growth of cognitive science, neuroscience, and positive psychology as interdisciplinary fields.

• 2000s–present - Advancements in neuroimaging, evidence-based therapy, and cultural psychology expand the discipline globally.

How is Psychology connected to Learning?

I minored in Psychology in my undergraduate program. I took several courses on Psychology in my graduate program and teacher’s college program. As a former classroom teacher and academic researcher, I needed to make a connection between psychology and learning and thus begin my exploration.

Psychology is fundamentally connected to learning because it provides the scientific foundation for understanding how individuals acquire, process, and retain knowledge.

Through the study of cognitive functions such as attention, memory, and problem-solving, psychology helps explain the mental processes involved in learning.

Behavioral theories highlight how reinforcement and punishment shape learning behaviors, while developmental psychology offers insight into how learners change over time and how instruction must adapt to their cognitive and emotional stages.

Social psychology sheds light on how peer interactions, teacher expectations, and classroom dynamics influence motivation and performance.

Moreover, humanistic and educational psychology emphasize the importance of self-concept, motivation, and the learning environment in nurturing each learner’s potential.

Together, these psychological insights enable educators to design effective teaching strategies, address individual differences, and create supportive environments that enhance both academic success and personal growth.

According to the research presented in the paper I linked at the start of this essay, there are twenty principles from psychology that are relevant to PreK - 12 Teaching.

I want to elaborate on ten principles from this paper that really impacted my work as an educator. I applied these actively when I spent two years in the classroom teaching grade 5.

The Structure of this Essay

In the rest of this essay I will state a principle and explain it in detail.

I will then share a story from the classroom where I noticed this being applied or a resource that explores how this can be applied in the classroom.

In some cases I will also share a video resource about an educator or group of educators that has applied this principle in the classroom and documented the same in a fun and engaging video.

Principle 1 - Students’ beliefs or perceptions about intelligence and ability affect their cognitive functioning and learning

The concept of growth and fixed mindsets, developed by psychologist Carol Dweck, refers to how people perceive their abilities and intelligence⁴. A growth mindset is the belief that intelligence and skills can be developed through effort, learning, and persistence, leading individuals to embrace challenges and learn from mistakes. In contrast, a fixed mindset is the belief that abilities are static and unchangeable, which can cause individuals to avoid difficult tasks and feel threatened by failure. These mindsets significantly influence motivation, resilience, and academic achievement. Students’ beliefs about intelligence—such as seeing it as fixed or malleable—directly affect how they approach learning and handle challenges. Those with a growth mindset (believing intelligence can be developed) are more likely to embrace effort, persist through difficulties, and use effective strategies, enhancing their cognitive functioning and learning. In contrast, students who view intelligence as fixed may avoid challenges, fear failure, and give up easily, limiting their cognitive engagement and academic progress.

In this video from the BeGLAD Youtube Channel we look at how a teacher cultivated a growth mindset in her kindergarten classroom.

Principle 2 - What students already know affects their learning

What students already know affects their long-term learning because new learning is built on existing knowledge. When students can connect new information to what they already understand, they make sense of it more easily, retain it longer, and apply it more effectively. Accurate prior knowledge acts as a scaffold, supporting deeper comprehension and problem-solving, while misconceptions can lead to confusion and learning gaps. Therefore, the quality and accuracy of prior knowledge play a critical role in shaping future learning outcomes.

How can a teacher use this principle in the classroom?

As a teacher, I understood that each student was developing at a varied pace physically, intellectually, psychologically, morally and socio-emotionally. My first priority as a teacher would be to develop a clear understanding of each student’s development with regards to the above categories. I will implement this philosophy in my classroom by first developing a student profile database, where I will collect information on student’s academic achievements, personal interests, career aspirations, socio-economic background, home environment and current emotional state of being. In addition to development, I will also make it a priority to understand the students’ prior knowledge and skillset with regards to the subject that I am teaching them in the classroom. I will then utilize this information to create and modify my instruction and assessment plan to meet the student where they are. I will then use my professional skillset as a teacher to take them to where they want to be.

Principle 5 - Acquiring long-term knowledge and skill is largely dependent on practice.

Acquiring long-term knowledge and skills for school students depends on consistent and deliberate practice because mastery requires repetition, focused effort, and continuous refinement. Consistent practice allows students to reinforce what they've learned, strengthen neural connections, and build a deeper understanding. Deliberate practice—focused, goal-oriented practice aimed at improvement—helps students identify weaknesses, correct errors, and gradually increase their competence. Over time, this process leads to more automated skills, better retention, and the ability to apply knowledge effectively in various contexts, ultimately fostering long-term learning and achievement.

How can a teacher use this principle in the classroom?

I extended my understanding of this concept by applying the concepts of Deliberate Practice and Deep Work to this principle. This helped me expand the idea of practice in a classroom context. Deliberate Practice “includes activities that have been specially designed to improve the current level of performance” (Ericsson, 1993, pg. 368)⁵. Deep work includes “activities performed in a state of distraction-free concentration that push your cognitive capabilities to their limit. These efforts create new value, improve your skill, and are hard to replicate” (Newport, 2016, pg. 3)⁶. As a teacher, I will model my classroom to promote these two approaches to learning. The student should develop a clear understanding of their current state of development and the steps required to improve their current state. I will then give them the time and space they need to implement these steps in a classroom environment. My objective as a teacher is to create a classroom community where each student develops the knowledge and skills to understand and move beyond their current zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978, pg. 87)⁷. This will ensure they have the tools to grow as a learner even beyond the classroom walls.

Principle 6 - Clear, explanatory, and timely feedback to students is important for learning

Clear, explanatory, and timely feedback is crucial for learning because it helps students understand what they did well, where they went wrong, and how they can improve. Feedback that is clear and specific guides students in correcting mistakes and refining their skills, while timely feedback ensures that they can make adjustments before misconceptions or errors become ingrained. This type of feedback promotes a growth mindset, boosts motivation, and supports continuous improvement, ultimately leading to better understanding and mastery of the material.

In this video from the Edutopia Youtube Channel we get to look at six teacher teacher approved tips for faster, more effective feedback.

Principle 9 - Students tend to enjoy learning and perform better when they are more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated to achieve.

The Self Determination Theory created by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan posits that individuals have three innate psychological needs—autonomy (the desire to be the agent of one's own actions), competence (the need to master tasks and learn different skills), and relatedness (the need to feel connected to others)—which, when satisfied, foster intrinsic motivation, well-being, and personal growth⁸. SDT emphasizes that when these needs are supported, individuals are more likely to engage in activities willingly and with a sense of volition, leading to enhanced performance and psychological health. Similarly, students tend to enjoy learning and perform better when they are intrinsically motivated because their drive comes from genuine interest, curiosity, and personal satisfaction, rather than external rewards or pressures. This internal motivation fosters deeper engagement, persistence through challenges, and a greater sense of ownership over their learning, which often leads to more meaningful understanding and long-term retention of knowledge.

How can a teacher use this principle in the classroom?

As a teacher, I will make it my personal responsibility to get the students excited about the subject I plan to teach them by tapping into their intrinsic desire to understand and add value to the world in their own capacity as students. Every student has something that they are deeply interested in and want to explore further. They want to work on something meaningful in a real world context. If we can engage them in a learning experience that taps into these needs, it will allow us to encourage them to bring their best self to class. As a teacher, I want the student to know that I care about the things they care about. I want the student to know that I am really invested in their curiosity and their drive to explore further. I will remember that effective instruction requires that we translate ideas into real-life terms that are organically connected to “what the child has already seen and felt and loved” (Dewey, 1974, pg. 353)⁹. I will aim to create such a learning environments in my classroom.

Principle 11 - Teachers’ expectations about their students affect students’ opportunities to learn, their motivation, and their learning outcomes

Teachers’ expectations influence students’ learning because they shape how teachers interact with, support, and challenge each student¹⁰. When teachers hold high expectations, they tend to provide more encouragement, richer learning opportunities, and constructive feedback, which boosts students’ confidence and motivation. Conversely, low expectations can limit students’ chances to engage deeply with content and discourage effort, leading to poorer performance and self-perception. In essence, students often internalize and respond to the beliefs their teachers hold about them, creating a self-fulfilling cycle that impacts their learning outcomes.

In this video from the Edutopia Youtube Channel we look at how teacher’s change student’s lives through high expectation and strong beliefs about the student’s ability to learn and grow.

Principle 14 - Interpersonal relationships and communication are critical to both the teaching– learning process and the social-emotional development of students.

Interpersonal relationships and communication are crucial to the teaching-learning process and the social-emotional development of students because they create a supportive and trusting environment where students feel valued and understood. Positive relationships with teachers and peers foster collaboration, active engagement, and a sense of belonging, which are essential for academic success. Furthermore, effective communication helps students navigate their emotions, develop empathy, and improve conflict resolution skills, all of which contribute to their overall well-being and personal growth.

How can a teacher use this principle in the classroom?

As a teacher, I aim to create a classroom environment that is accepting of difference, appreciative of effort and accommodating of failure as a stepping stone to success. These will be the expectations that I reinforce in my classroom. They will guide interpersonal relationship between the teacher and student. They will also guide interpersonal relationships between the student and his or her peer. My classroom community will aim to use honest, transparent and clear communication at periodic intervals to implement this principle. We will respect and accept the difference in our class and promote equity and inclusion to reframe difference as a strength rather than a weakness. We will strive to create a learning community that values effort and process as much as we value outcome and results. We will use failure as a stepping stone to success by collecting important data and feedback on what can be improved in our subsequent effort. I will co-create this environment with my students and they will co-create this environment with their peers.

Principle 15 - Emotional well-being influences educational performance, learning, and development.

Emotional well-being significantly influences educational performance, learning, and development in the classroom because it affects a student's ability to focus, engage, and manage challenges. When students are emotionally balanced, they are more likely to be motivated, resilient, and open to learning, allowing them to absorb and retain information more effectively. Positive emotional health also helps students manage stress, build positive relationships with peers and teachers, and approach tasks with a growth mindset, all of which enhance their academic outcomes and personal development. In contrast, poor emotional well-being can lead to distractions, disengagement, and behavioral issues, hindering their learning progress.

In this video from the CBS Mornings Youtube Channel we look at how a school program improves emotional well being by supporting students with some mental health tools.

Principle 17 - Effective classroom management is based on (a) setting and communicating high expectations, (b) consistently nurturing positive relationships, and (c) providing a high level of student support.

Effective classroom management depends on the synergistic integration of three essential elements: setting clear, high expectations; nurturing positive relationships; and providing comprehensive student support. By establishing and communicating rigorous academic and behavioral standards, teachers create a structured environment where students understand boundaries and goals. However, these expectations become meaningful when paired with consistently positive relationships, where students feel valued, respected, and connected to their teacher and peers. The final piece is robust student support—providing the scaffolding, resources, and encouragement that enable all students to meet those high expectations. While each component offers value independently, truly effective classroom management emerges when all three work in concert, creating an environment where students are simultaneously challenged, connected, and supported on their learning journey.

In this video from Edutopia Youtube Channel we look at some research backed strategies for better classroom management.

Principle 18 - Formative and summative assessments are both important and useful but require different approaches and interpretations.

Formative and summative assessments are both crucial to student learning because they serve different yet complementary roles. Formative assessments provide ongoing feedback during the learning process, helping students identify areas of improvement and adjust their learning strategies. In contrast, summative assessments evaluate the overall achievement and mastery of content at the end of a unit or course. Both types of assessments require different approaches: formative assessments focus on real-time support and guidance, while summative assessments provide a final measure of student progress. These varied methods ensure that teachers can address individual learning needs and gauge overall educational outcomes, making assessment a dynamic and multi-faceted tool in the classroom. Beyond traditional formative and summative assessments, teachers can engage students through authentic evaluation methods that showcase deeper understanding. These alternatives include student-created portfolios documenting growth over time, project-based assessments addressing real-world problems, performance demonstrations like role-plays or debates, digital storytelling using multimedia tools, learning stations requiring application of skills, peer teaching opportunities, self-reflection journals with guided prompts, student-designed assessment questions, virtual reality experiences, and collaborative community projects.

In this video from Edutopia Youtube Channel we look at how different appraoches to assessment can help schools get a more comprehensive picture of student learning and growth.

I used this paper and the principles recommended by the researcher to create a 2 page teaching philosophy document (read here) that guides my practice as a teacher in the physical and digital world. I added pictures of the same here.

Thank you for reading this essay. I love reading academic research and writing this essay brought me so much enjoy and allowed me to go back to my roots as an educational researcher.

Until next time.

Keep learning.

Abhishek

Notes

1. Lucariello, J., PhD, Graham, S., PhD, Nastasi, B., PhD, Dwyer, C., PhD, Skiba, R., PhD, Plucker, J., PhD, Pitoniak, M., PhD, Brabeck, M., PhD, DeMarie, D., PhD, Pritzker, S., PhD, Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education, & American Psychological Association. (2015). Top 20 principles from psychology for preK–12 teaching and learning. Retrieved on April 24, 2025 from https://www.apa.org/ed/schools/teaching-learning/top-twenty-principles.pdf

2. History of the American Psychological Association. American Psychological Association. Retrieved on April 24, 2025 from https://www.apa.org/about/apa/archives/apa-history

3. Wikipedia Contributors. (2025, March 16). History of psychology. Wikipedia. Retrieved on April 24, 2025 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology#:~:text=Psychology%20as%20a%20field%20of,how%20to%20experiment%20on%20them

4. Dweck, C. S., & Yeager, D. S. (2019). Mindsets: A view from two eras. Perspectives on Psychological science, 14(3), 481-496. Retrieved on April 24, 2025 from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1745691618804166

5. Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological review, 100(3), 363.Newport, C. (2016). Deep work: Rules for focused success in a distracted world. Hachette UK.

6. Newport, C. (2016). Deep work: Rules for focused success in a distracted world. Hachette UK.

7. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.).

8. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 54-67.

9. Dewey, John (1974). John Dewey on Education: Selected Writings.

10. Johnston, O., Wildy, H., & Shand, J. (2019). A decade of teacher expectations research 2008–2018: Historical foundations, new developments, and future pathways. Australian Journal of Education, 63(1), 44-73.